Business Driven Information Systems

1. Do you agree or disagree with Friedman’s assessment that the world is flat? Be sure to justify your answer. I don’t fully agree with Friedman’s vision of the â€Å"flat World†. Though I think we are more connected and informed than ever. According to me I feel Friedman’s views and research is mostly concerning the developed countries focusing on business and targeting the cooperate world. Today technology, telecommunications has definitely helped people around the world to be closer. But Friedman’s does not mention the less fortunate countries where the globalization is still a far dream. I feel Friedman’s analysis is a good fit for the rich and developed countries, where World has changed to a â€Å"global village†. 2. What are the potential impacts of a flat world for a student performing a job search? Today’s educated youth has all the potential and access to the world of technology at their fingertips. They can easily change to the growing job demands and are ready for job changes as needed. They sure got to have good education as the competition is high in today’s economy. I don’t think it’s difficult to find a job; it depends on how open you are to change in the new world of job opportunities and choose the best option. . What can students do to prepare themselves for competing in a flat world? Students can equip themselves for this competitive World by acquiring good education. Be updated in the field of your study and keep yourself open to news and updates. The coffee shop business is mainly framed in 2 mainstreams. Fi rst group is the major players like Starbucks, Seattle's Best Coffee, Dietrich, Brewsters, New World, Gloria Gears, which can be denoted as Specialty Brands. Second group contains One-Store coffee shops like The Broadway Cafe. These are generally local, small businesses. The coffee shop industry possesses a very high intensified competition on all players: both Specialty Brand and One-Store Coffee Shops. The main reasons that contribute to the high competition are †¢ The number of shops is huge (hoovers. com) †¢ Competitors are selling same or similar products, including specialty coffees as well as high quality foods. †¢ The fixed cost portion constitutes a high portion of the cost structure. Companies should sell more products to cover these costs, which increases competition.

Holocaust Sociology

Gevorg Petrosyan Professor Wonser Intro to Sociology 23 June 2012 Final Project, Assignment 2: Nazi Germany and Holocaust The Holocaust was the genocide of around six million European Jews during World War II. (Holocaust History) Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler had targeted every single Jew to be perished. Unfortunately Nazi Germany succeeded to murder two-thirds of the nine million Jews who were stationed in Europe. (Holocaust History) The Holocaust can be viewed at in many sociological perspectives of the sociologists mind. Adolf Hitler used everything in his power to exterminate any non-German ethnic that lived in Germany. Hitler) Authority played a key point in the Holocaust against the Jews. The following are the many perspectives of this horrific act against humanity. One of the main sociological perspectives that fall into Nazi Germany and how Holocaust was looked at was social stratification. The Aryan race was supreme; anybody else was lower then they. (Nazi SS) Jews, homos exuals, handicapped, prisoners of war, and minority groups were all prosecuted. As talked about in lecture, Max Weber’s theory of social class portrayed Adolf Hitler’s wealth, power, and prestige. Hitler used these components to his advantage and started an empire.Brainwashing Germans to hate and murder humans that are not in their â€Å"social class†, as said the Aryan race. Social class and inequality played a big role for the non-Aryan. Everything was stripped away from them such as cars, money, children, clothes, food, and eventually their hope. The people of culture of poverty had strong feeling of not belonging, helplessness, no faith, and all hope was gone. Jews and others were treated as aliens or non-humans. Adolf Hitler was a functionalist in my point of view because in that way he would think social stratification was both natural and beneficial to society.He promoted deviance in the way of the labeling theory. If you are not Aryan or German you are n ot welcome and also considered as a threat. (Nazi SS) In that case you are labeled through judgment and that changes the way others respond to you. Another labeling theory in the Holocaust was the yellow Star of David patch. This patch often put against right side of the chest, implemented and labeled the person as a â€Å"Jude†. Nazi persecutions used this to label to their prosecutors in an organized way. (Nazi SS) With this patch you had implanted in your mind that you are going to die.It was intended to be the badge of shame and now the public knew you as a Jew. The Jude community was treated like dogs; they were given a name and badge similar to dog tag or collar, and looked upon as animals. Erving Goffman’s term of stigma was given to the Jewish because of their social attribute. Nazi Germany used all three types of stigma in their society such as physical for the impaired or handicapped, moral for mentally challenged, and tribal for Jewish and other non-Aryan or German. The Erving Goffman’s term of stigma was lectured in class. Nazi Germany was big in-group created by Adolf Hitler.They felt loyalty and brotherhood towards each other. Anyone besides them was a major out-group, such as the Jews. The rivalry and hatred they had for the Jews was a usual thing by other fellow Nazi. Such a big in-group had and influence on any Nazi to believe what they were doing is right. Group cohesion strongly powered the Nazi for the loyalty and solidarity. All the members felt strongly tied to each other as family in a way. Any one else was not like them and was to be treated differently. Adolf Hitler’s social influence was the image to all Nazi.His social influence gave them their individual attitudes and behaviors towards others. This became ideal for a dictator, because the group norms made the members want to gain acceptance to their own country. Any negative sanctions were looked down upon and so Germans followed one after another into ag reement. Weber’s idea of charismatic authority fell into the category of Adolf Hitler. Adolf Hitler served in the army and soon enough became known as the â€Å"Furher† of Germany. (Hitler 1) Hitler’s demanding voice and humorless speeches dominated audiences.He had all the qualities of a leader from the minute he was born. He didn’t like taking orders from his own strict father. (Hitler 1) Hitler also had many bureaucracies under him, such as the SS. The Schutzstaffel translated to Protection Squad was responsible for many of the crimes towards humanity during World War II. Heinrich Himmler was in charge of a vast bureaucratic empire. He was responsible for the SS, as well as the municipal police. (Nazi SS 4) The SS was feared amongst all Jews because of their deadly rules and punishments.These bureaucracies were so useful to the empire because they ran all the operations needed for power. Hitler used them to keep order and organization between the count ry, plus not to get his hands dirty. The Nazi Empire and Holocaust was made up of many total institutions. First one would be the military; Hitler knew he had to get the military on his side and soon will obey any command. Soon the military had a mortification of self in which they were brainwashed to dehumanize Jews. They were taught to have â€Å"racially pure† Germany and life. (Chronicle 2) The Holocaust wasn't carried out by crazy or unusually violent people.The SS deliberately tried to ensure that those responsible for the actual killings were not especially eager, or emotional. They wanted the task to be as business-like and impersonal as possible. (Nazi SS 4) People stop worrying about what the ‘right' thing to do is because the right thing is always to do what you're told, and that was because of discipline and authority. Another total institution would be the death camps or also known as concentration camps. Which norms or laws were among the prisoners society ? The prisoners had a whole new social life.Resocialization took an impact on them to which fighting for survival was needed and communications between prisoners and officers. Some type of achieved status controlled the whole environment of the prisoners and changed their outlook on life, which soon enough became a mortification of self. Prisoners under hunger, extreme working conditions, and terror of death mortified one to go toe extreme lengths of survival by obeying every rule given or going slowly insane to the point of no return. (Chronicle 2) One of the most disastrous theories for the Holocaust would be dehumanization.What people failed to realize why the Holocaust happened was because what the people were enabling each other to do. (Holocaust History 3) All they did was gather statistics and data and didn’t realize that it was human beings for those stats. The order is different from the act because the person who gave the order doesn’t interpret in their head what kind of order they just gave and the action part of it. The generals and Nazi didn’t focus on the fact that they were committing mass murder to a great amount of human beings with families and connections.There actions weren’t â€Å"bad† at the time so no problem in doing it but when later on in life they realize what they’ve done is very different outlook. The Holocaust would have been impossible without the advancements of modern society. The slaughtering of Jews and other was just like a factory but instead of producing goods, it was producing death. Without modern industrialization and technology they would have never killed mass amounts of people that fast. Gas chambers, trains importing prisoners, concentration camps, not much food source for prisoners, and workload were all components to modern society. Chronicle 3) This is what moved the genocide to speed up its movement of extermination. Letting Adolf Hitler get to his achieved status broug ht up to Holocaust idea. Without letting him get to this status of â€Å"Furher†. He would not turn a great country into a mass murdering empire of bureaucracies. His speeches, authority, leadership skills, and discipline is what made the Nazi Empire what it was. His authority and discipline is what made the soldiers make the choice they made. Why did Hitler target the Jews mostly?Why not another race? He blamed Jews for everything that happened within the country such as lost of World War I, and for the Great Depression. (Hitler 1) He also hated Jews because he regarded them as mostly Communist. (Hitler 1) Society killed the Jews because of their statuses and way of life. Jews were the most significantly affected by the Holocaust but others were targeted too. These included political opponents, soviet prisoners of war, communists, homosexuals, mentally challenged, non-Aryan, and gypsies. Holocaust History 3) They labeled it as â€Å"people that were killed in Holocaust† and didn’t seem to realize how it affected those peoples families and friendships. To this day Jews still mourn over the six million that died. Germany also takes in the guilt of what their country has done in the past. The Holocaust affected such large numbers and was one of the most mass killing genocides. It is taught all around the world in textbooks and classes. Society revolves under it because now Jews are looked at differently even if they deny someone doesn’t.

New Developments in Technology Management

The teaching of technology management has a long history in business schools. However, the nature and focus of such curricula have changed in recent years, due to several trends. The rise of a knowledge-based economy has brought greater attention to the management and commercialization of intellectual property (Markman, Siegel, & Wright, 2008).Questions regarding the appropriate business models to foster successful commercialization have been further complicated by the rise of â€Å"open-source† innovation (e. g. , Linux, a software company that has captured substantial market share). And new institutions (e. g. , incubators and science parks; Phan, Siegel, & Wright, 2005) and new organizational forms (e. g. , research joint ventures [RJVs], and technology alliances) have emerged that may also have profound effects on technology management education.Nonprofit institutions, most notably universities and federal laboratories, have become much more aggressive in protecting and ex ploiting their intellectual property (Siegel & Wright, 2007). Such institutions, es324 Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved. Contents may not be copied, emailed, posted to a listserv, or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express written permission. Users may print, download or email articles for individual use only. pecially universities, are also working much more closely with industry and government.These trends and growing involvement of government and nongovernmental institutions in innovation and commercialization have led to growing international recognition of the narrowness of technology management education as it is practiced today. Some business and engineering schools have responded to these developments by designing new courses and curricula related to technological entrepreneurship. Some countries with centralized educational systems (e. g. , Japan, Singapore, and Ireland) are graduating â€Å"bilingual engineers† with capabilities in technology and business.Yet, this trend of marrying technology with management education is still far from being in the mainstream. Another important development in stimulating and changing the nature of the demand for technology management education is the rise of knowledge and intellectual property management as a professional field. In many countries, national governments have supported these initiatives by en- 2009 Phan, Siegel, and Wright 325 acting legislation to facilitate public–private research partnerships, technology transfer (through patenting and licensing) from universities to firms (e. g. , the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980), and collaborative research.For example, the EU, China, and Singapore have established technology-based venture funds to stimulate the development of technologybased start-up companies. In the United States, the national â€Å"public sector venture capital† for technology-based new ventures, the Small Business Inn ovation Research (SBIR) program and numerous state-level programs with similar goals (e. g. , Ben Franklin Technology Partners, Pennsylvania, and the Massachusetts Technology Development Corporation) have propelled technology transfer issues to the forefront of university technology management curricula.Government is also providing subsidies for research joint ventures involving universities and firms (e. g. , the Commerce Department’s Advanced Technology Program/Technology Innovation Program), shared use of expertise and laboratory facilities (e. g. , the National Science Foundation’s Engineering Research Centers and Industry– University Cooperative Research Centers), and programs to promote management and entrepreneurship education among scientists and engineers (e. g. the Science Enterprise Challenge in the U. K. ). These and other trends discussed here have led to experimentation and innovation in technology management pedagogy and content, which is the focu s of this special issue. For example, it is obvious that the rise in collaborative research and commercialization has important educational implications, since it implies that team-work has become more important in science and engineering, especially when both innovation and commercialization are involved.This has resulted in the increasingly popular use of real-life team projects as the primary method of delivering discovery-based learning. Our purpose in this special issue is to assess the implications of these trends for technology management curricula in business schools. In spring 2008, we issued an open Call for Papers on the Academy of Management website, the Social Science Research Network, and other venues. We received 38 manuscripts, which were reviewed according to AMLE standards for the Research & Reviews section.Papers were also solicited for the Essays, Dialogues, & Interviews and Exemplary Contribution sections, which were subject to the usual peer-review process. Bas ed on the results, we selected several manuscripts for inclusion which are summarized in Table 1. The remainder of this essay is organized as fol- lows: First, we describe recent public policy changes, which have promoted university– industry partnerships, collaborative research, and technology transfer from universities and federal labs to the private sector.Then, we discuss the educational implications of these trends, drawing on some of the lessons learned from the papers in special issue. Finally, we outline an agenda for additional research on technology management education. PUBLIC POLICY INITIATIVES INFLUENCING TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT In recent decades, we have witnessed rapid growth in the incidence of a variety of research partnerships and technology commercialization involving corporations, universities, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies.This growth can be attributed to three policy initiatives: †¢ Policies promoting the transfer of technology from universities and federal labs to firms †¢ A large increase in the incidence of public– private partnerships †¢ Relaxation of antitrust enforcement related to collaborative research Examples of such technology partnerships are research joint ventures, strategic alliances and networks involving high-technology organizations, industry consortia (e. g. SEMATECH), cooperative research and development agreements (CRADAs) involving federal labs and firms, engineering research centers (ERCs), and industry– university cooperative research centers (IUCRCs) sponsored by the U. S. National Science Foundation, federally funded research and development centers, science parks and high-technology incubators (many of which are located at universities), and licensing and sponsored research agreements involving universities, government laboratories, firms, and university-based start-ups. Table 2 summarizes the key U. S. egislation promoting government– university œindustry partnerships, collaborative research, and technology transfer/commercialization. The most important legislation in this regard is the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980, which dramatically changed the rules of the game with respect to the ownership of intellectual property rights of technologies emerging from federal research grants. Bayh–Dole conferred the right to universities to patent and claim the scientific discoveries arising from U. S. government-funded research, instituted a uniform patent policy across federal agencies, and lifted numerous restrictions on technology licensing.As a result of this legis- 326 Academy of Management Learning & Education September TABLE 1 Summary of Papers Authors Barr, Baker, Markham, & Kingon Key Research Question Discovering how to teach technological entrepreneurship skills that will help bridge the â€Å"valley of death† in COT between creation of technology and emergence of a commercial venture. Theory/Framework Van Burg et al. (2008) science-based design framework of five factors critical to enhance science-based start-ups; cognitive theory; theory of planned action.Data/Methods Analysis of development of a COT program for MBA, PhD, and master’s students at North Carolina State over 14year period. Findings/Conclusions Enactive mastery experiences have to be perceived as authentic and real to have desired effect; importance of loosely structured handson engagement; program needs to be real, intensive, interdisciplinary and iterative; need to create temporal checkpoints, decenter business plans, to structure large blocks of time, to emphasize and balance team diversity, generate technology flow, beware of idiosyncratic heuristics.Significant positive effects of the program on student perceptions of the multidisciplinary capabilities needed to operate in a technological business environment. Thursby, Thursby, & Fuller What are the benefits and challenges of integrated approaches to graduate edu cation in technological entrepreneurship? Theory of the Firm—Economic Approach to Evaluation. Austin, Nolan, & O’Donnell How to design a student experience in technology management that addresses the learning cycle more completely, while maintaining very high levels of student engagement. Experiential learning theory.Ordered logit analysis of program assessment data including pre- and postsurveys and a control group relating to a NSF-sponsored integrated program at Georgia Tech and Emory University involving PhD, MBA, and JD students. Programs at universities in two countries, MNC executives, and open enrollment course at a business school; combination of case and traditional lecture-based approaches; narrative approach based on monomyth; student course feedback and follow-up 1 year later. Verzat, Byrne, & Fayolle Boni, Weingart, & Evenson What teaching methods can be used to create entrepreneurial engineers that have a keen sense of teamwork?Are games an appropriate p edagogical device to meet the specific learning needs of engineering students? Can games help engineering students learn about teamwork? How to teach skills of creating disruptive innovations and develop new business opportunities through blending entrepreneurial thought and action, design thinking, and team building. Education science and team process; Kirkpatrick’s 4level hierarchy of evaluation. Use of team games in a traditional elitist French teaching context that emphasizes individual learning; evaluation data collected from 111 groups on initial reaction to the game and interviews 3 months later.Approach works at multiple student levels with same materials but emphasis differs across groups; able to use with introductory and capstone courses; approach acts as a leveler in class as all can engage with the ‘story’; issues concerning integration of supplementary materials, lack of ‘closure’ in each class, use of fictionalized cases. Games rated a positive reaction from students despite being an informal departure from normal formal approach; real learning outcome in exposing students to importance of team working.Disruptive innovation, entrepreneurial leadership, design thinking, and team building. Capstone course for MBA Entrepreneurship in Organizations & Design master’s students at Carnegie Mellon involving team teaching; Multidisciplinary teams of designers, technologists, and business student entrepreneurs. It is important to blend three perspectives for effective commercialization of innovation: (1) entrepreneurial thought and action, (2) design thinking, and (3) teambuilding.A key feature of this project-based course is the collaboration between MBA students and School of Design students, which leads to the development of new business opportunities. (table continues) 2009 Phan, Siegel, and Wright 327 TABLE 1 Continued Authors Clarysse, Mosey, & Lambrecht Key Research Question What are implications for developm ents in technology management education of contemporary challenges such as globalization, open innovation, and the need for corporate renewal (and venturing)? Theory/Framework Technology management skills provision.Data/Methods Qualitative analysis based on interviews with 10 technology management education demand- and supply-side actors in universities, consultancies, and corporations across Europe. Findings/Conclusions Technology Management Educations is a dynamic field moving from traditional MBA focused programs towards more entrepreneurial ‘bootcamps’, from a case study oriented teaching style towards a mentoring approach and from an emphasis upon general business towards working across disciplines yet being sensitive to underlying technologies; a shift from general to specific skills; Linkages between business schools and technology chools is an important element of this change. Courses in IP management, management of industrial R&D, systems architecture and engin eering could only be offered by transfer to School of Engineering; traditional professional degrees can be enhanced by integrating management of technology programs into core engineering curriculum; advantages of offering part-time courses for those in employment.Need to find a subtle balance between traditional didactic courses, presentations of leading edge research, workshops and meetings with practitioners, field studies and involvement in real projects through internships (including outside France); need for faculty to have close links with industry both domestically and abroad; important use of concurrent teaching modes. Hang, Ang, Wong, & Subramanian How can management of technology programs & curricula be designed to meet the needs of a small newly developed Asian country?Action learning as a foundation for curriculum design in technology intensive technology management programs. Qualitative analysis of transfer of MSc in Management of Technology from business school to a sc hool of engineering in Singapore Mustar How to develop a highly selective technology management course for students in a leading French engineering school, in an institutional and country environment traditionally resistant to the notion of entrepreneurship, that develops their entrepreneurial skills but which goes beyond an introductory course on how to start a business.How to combine the acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills. How to develop their entrepreneurial skills and their ability to take responsibilities. How to encourage imagination, creativity, involvement, and risk taking. Qualitative analysis of the case of innovation and entrepreneurship in Mines Paris-Tech, a leading French engineering school. lation, U. S. research universities established technology transfer offices to manage and protect their intellectual property.The Stevenson–Wydler Act, enacted in the same year as Bayh–Dole and then extended in 1986, required federal labs to adopt technology transfer as part of their mission and also authorized cooperative research and development agreements (CRADAs) between the labs and private organizations. The National Cooperative Research Act (NCRA) of 1984 and the National Cooperative Research and Production Act (NCRPA) of 1993, promoted collabo- 328 Academy of Management Learning & Education September TABLE 2 Key U. S.Legislation Promoting Government–University–Federal Lab–Industry Partnerships, Collaborative Research, Technology Transfer/Commercialization Legislation Bayh–Dole Act of 1980 Key Aspects of Legislation Transferred ownership of intellectual property from federal agencies (which sponsor most basic research) to universities; Spurred the growth of university technology transfer offices, which manage university patenting and licensing. Required federal labs to adopt technology transfer as a part of their mission; Authorized cooperative research and development agreements (CRADAs) be tween federal labs and private organizations.Created the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and the Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs, which require each federal agency to allocate a percentage (now 2. 5%) of their research budget to small business research with commercial potential. NCRA and NCRPA actively encouraged the formation of research joint ventures and joint production ventures among U. S. firms. Institutions Affected by Legislation Universities; teaching hospitals; firms Stevenson–Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980; Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986 Federal labs; firms Small Business Innovation Development Act of 1982Universities; small firms; venture capital firms National Cooperative Research Act (NCRA) of 1984; National Cooperative Research and Production Act (NCRPA) of 1993 Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988; America COMPETES Act (2007) Firms; universities The 1988 act established the Advanced Technology Program (A TP), a public–private research program. In 2007, the America COMPETES Act created the successor to ATP, the Technology Innovation Program (TIP). Firms; universities rative research by eliminating antitrust concerns associated with joint research even when these projects involved firms in the same industry.The NCRA created a registration process, later expanded by the National Cooperative Research and Production Act (NCRPA) of 1993, under which research joint ventures (RJVs) can disclose their research intentions to the Department of Justice. The most notable research joint venture established via the NCRA registration process was SEMATECH (SEmiconductor MAnufacturing TECHnology), a not-for-profit research consortium, which provided a pilot manufacturing facility, where member companies could improve their semiconductor manufacturing process technologies.Other legislation created two key publicly funded technology programs: (1) the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and the Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) programs, which require each federal agency to allocate a percentage (now 2. 5%) of their research budgets to small businesses with commercial promise, and (2) the Advanced Technology Program (ATP), a public– private research program, which funds collaborative research on generic technologies. In 2007, the America COMPETEs Act created the successor to ATP, the Technology Innovation Program (TIP).Universities are actively involved in both programs, working closely with large firms on ATP/ TIP research projects, as well as with small companies on SBIR/STTR, sometimes founding these firms. As a result, many technology management curricula in the United States are now infused with a public policy dimension that was previously missing. Table 3 presents global evidence on key policy changes relating to the legislative and support environment for technology commercialization in five nations: France, Germany, Italy, Singapore, and the Un ited Kingdom.For example, according to Meyer (2008), Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, and Japan have adopted â€Å"Bayh–Dole like† legislation, emphasizing a â€Å"patent-centered† model of university and national laboratory technology transfer. The United Kingdom and Israel have always had a system of university-owned 2009 TABLE 3 Legislative and Support Environment for Technology Commercialization in France, Germany, Italy, Singapore, and the U. K. Germany 1999 Public researchers receive the right to be the owner of their IP.This is the opposite of the Bayh–Dole Act, but oftentimes the university makes a formal contract on an individual basis to give the IP rights to the university. 2002 Employer Invention Law: Invention belongs to the employer not to the professor. 2000–2006 Restructuring of various laws to make it easier to commercialize technology from universities, get part of the royalties as an academic, take equity in start-ups, etc. Italy Singapore U. K. No formal Bayh–Dole Act. In the case of UK public research organizations the IP is owned by the institution and the royalties associated with the IP are distributed between the relevant parties.The distribution of royalties is organized on an institutional basis. Milestone France I. University Ownership of Intellectual Property Arising From Federal (National) Research Grants (e. g. , Bayh–Dole Act in U. S. ) Not relevant as all IP belongs to universities/public research institutes following the â€Å"code intellectuelle de la propriete. † II. Other Key Changes 1999 Innovation Act gives the possibility to academics who are civil servants to participate as a partner or a manager in a new company and to take equity (previously illegal for civil servants).This Act encourages the creation of new start-up firms by students. 2002 Decree that regulates and increases the personal income an academic can receive from IP (50%). Phan, Siegel, and W right III. Financial Support 1999 11 (pre-) seed capital funds created to invest in innovative start-ups and take equity (investment in 150 spinoffs in 8 yrs). Creation of the annual National Competition for the creation of technologically innovative startups (grant from 45,000 to 450,000 Euros); 12,927 projects have been presented between 1999 and 2007: 1,879 have been funded.Creation of 29 incubators between 1999 and 2007; they hosted 1993 projects giving birth to 1,239 new firms. Between 1999 and 2007, these 3 schemes have benefited 1,760 new firms (taking into account that a company can benefit from different schemes). Around 50% are academic spin-offs. 2000 EXIST: public program that assists spin-offs through preseed capital and management support. 2002 EEF-Fund: Researchers can receive a scholarship to start a spin-off. 2002 22 TTOs established which take care of IP management. 999 National Research Commission created, which annually funds about 5-10 proposals for spin-offs, a mounting to 30,000 Euro, on average. 2005 Quantica Fund. First interuniversity seed capital fund (a form of public–private partnership) is created. 2005 Italian University technology transfer offices have to join together in groups of four and bid for money (100,000 Euro/university) to sponsor their day-today operations. 1963 Forms tripartite macroeconomic structure of industry, labor, and government as basis for funding innovation and economic development. 001–2008 National initiative to focus on microelectronics, biotechnology, nanotechnology, materials science, healthcare and life sciences as part of national innovation initiative. The right to commercialize IP are assigned to the faculty. 2001 Economic Development Board charged with the implementation of the 5-Year Science and Technology Plan which includes initiatives to target key technology sectors, attract foreign investment and human capital, and accelerate technological entrepreneurship and technology commerc ialization.Agency for Science, Technology and Research or A*STAR) created to fund and create infrastructure of industry– university joint research efforts in strategic technology sectors. 2005 The government’s funding plan is to increase R&D expenditure to 3% of GDP by 2010, from the 2004 R&D expenditure of $2. 5 billion US (about 2. 25% of GDP). 2007 Public sector R&D budgets more than doubled to $13. 55 US billion from 2005, comprised of $5 billion US for the National Research Foundation (NRF), $5. 4 billion US for the Public Research Institutes housed in the Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR). 1. 05 billion US for academic (universitybased) research. $2. 1 billion US for the Economic Development Board (EDB) to promote private sector R&D. 1970 onward Various schemes to promote collaborative projects between universities and industry, including Knowledge Transfer Networks. 1998–2004 Higher education reaches out to business and the community to provide funding to establish corporate liaison offices and collaborative projects. 1998 University Challenge Funds (UCFs): Universities were granted funds to support spin-off and limited incubation support. 001 onward HEIF (Higher Education Innovation Fund) provides permanent flow of funding to support & develop universities’ capacity to act as drivers of growth in the knowledge economy (various rounds up to 2008). (table continues) 329 330 TABLE 3 Continued Germany Italy Singapore UK Milestone France In 2005, six â€Å"Maisons de l’entrepreneuriat† in different universities have been created. They aim at facilitating the promotion of the entrepreneurial spirit and mind-set and â€Å"sensitization† to the new business start-up or new activities.Academy of Management Learning & Education Science Enterprise Challenge funding (1991/2001), to encourage culture open to entrepreneurship required for successful knowledge transfer from science base. Teaching ent repreneurship to support the commercialization of science and technology to produce graduates and postgraduates better able to engage in enterprise. Establish a network of UK universities specializing in teaching and practice of commercialization and entrepreneurialism in science and technology. 005 Medici Fellowship Scheme, pilot providing 50 fellowships over 2 years focusing on commercialization of biomedical research; fellows required to have significant prior research; local training in host institution in finance, marketing, IP, & business strategy; fellows encouraged to develop links with practitioners; postpilot further funding obtained to extend remit to include engineering researchers from 2007–2009; analogous schemes subsequently created by Research Councils and Regional Development Agencies and from 2007–2009 mainly focused in life sciences.Regional Development Agencies providing broad spectrum of assistance to develop more productive links between universit ies and industry. 2007–2011 Technology Strategy Board strategic plan envisages investing ? 1 billion of public funds plus matched funds from industry over 2008-2011, in doubling number of innovation platforms, a strategic review of Knowledge Transfer Networks, doubling number of Knowledge Transfer Partnerships, developing strategy to rapidly commercialize new and emerging technologies, piloting a new Small Business Research Initiative.September Information sources: Clarysse et al. (2007); Mustar & Wright (2009); and Koh & Phan (In Press). 2009 Phan, Siegel, and Wright 331 intellectual property. An increase in funding for technological entrepreneurship in many countries (see Table 3) has also stimulated greater interaction among firms, universities, and national labs, as well as the rise of intellectual property management curricula and courses at these institutions (for detailed comparison of France and the U. K. , see Mustar & Wright, 2009).EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THESE TRENDS The end result of these global trends is an increased emphasis on collaborative research, commercialization of intellectual property, entrepreneurship, venture capital, and research centers dedicated to emerging technologies, such as Organic LEDs, nanotechnology, biotechnology, materials science, MEMS, and so on. Such trends have brought new issues and perspectives, propelling the role of education to the forefront of discourse (e. g. , the recent AMLE special issue on entrepreneurship education).Conventional technology management and management of innovation curricula have focused largely on understanding the technology and innovation strategies of multinational firms (Nambisan & Willemon, 2003). There has been, until recently, less emphasis on start-up and entrepreneurial technology-based firms. The differences can be significant. For example, in the traditional curriculum, the role of teamwork, especially linking interdisciplinary teams of agents (scientists, technology ma nagers, and entrepreneurs) and institutions (firms, universities, government agencies) have not been stressed.That is, the individual and institutional levels of analyses have been ignored, such that technology management education curricula have been confined to how organizations respond to technological challenges. The developments in technology management education considered in this special issue can be seen as a response to the challenges leveled at business schools to be relevant to the practice of management (Pfeffer & Fong, 2002, 2004; Starkey, Hatchuel, & Tempest, 2004).At the same time, such programs that reside in business schools, when detached from the engineering and science faculties of their universities, run the risk of treating the technology component as a special case of general management. Our review of the literature and the lessons learned from this special issue suggest that a fully matured technology management program should treat technology with a capital â€Å"T† rather than the small one it has been to date. To accomplish this design goal, business schools eed to appoint program directors with strong boundary-spanning skills that can link up with technology-based units on and off campus by colocating or partnering with such institutions. We note that the challenge of integration is not easily solved. Over the years, business schools in the United States and United Kingdom have chosen to remain independent from the rest of their universities. This was partially enabled by the largesse of endowments in the 1980s and 1990s pouring in from private foundations and industrialists seeking to establish their names in perpetuity.Clarysse, Mosey, and Lambrecht (this issue) hypothesize that this is not a wise strategy for business schools administering technology management curricula. The authors conclude that business schools should expand their educational mission to include the education of engineering and science professors and res earchers, and the training of postgraduate science and engineering students, since these individuals are more likely to choose an industry or technology-specific master’s degree, instead of a traditional MBA.More generally, business schools need to have a stronger connection to schools of engineering and the sciences, and other technology-orientated organizations in the areas of medicine, public health, and pharmacy, as well as science-based business incubators and science parks. While acknowledging Clarysse et al. ’s points, we are concerned that each of these institutions has different paradigms, norms, standards, and values, as well as diverse languages and codes. Thus, it may be necessary to develop a shared syntax of boundary objects that include repositories, standardized forms, objects and models (Carlile, 2002).These communication devices enable individuals in business schools and technologybased schools to learn about their differences and dependencies, as wel l as jointly to evolve their knowledge bases about how things work â€Å"on the other side. † Hence, the recruitment and development of boundary spanners (such as program managers, center directors, or interdisciplinary faculty members) who can communicate across schools are important to facilitate such integration (see e. . , the Medici Scheme, Table 3). Another concern regarding the optimal design of technology management curricula arises in relation to the overall configuration of business schools. Ambos, Makela, Birkinshaw, and D’Este (2008) have argued that for universities to be effective at technology commercialization there is a need for ambidexterity in the organizational structures of these traditional research and teaching institutions.Similarly, with respect to technology 332 Academy of Management Learning & Education September management education, business schools must make their organizations more porous, for example, through the hiring and promotion of faculty with science and engineering degrees. Such ambidexterity configurations will enable business schools to more tightly bind the traditional business disciplines to science and engineering disciplines. The papers in this pecial issue challenge the proposition of Suddaby and Greenwood (2001), who asserted that business schools can sustain demand for new managerial knowledge through the education and accreditation of a continuing stream of management students. While it is true that there has been substantial growth in demand for courses in entrepreneurship and innovation in MBA and undergraduate programs, the ability of business schools to deliver these programs beyond an introductory level is open to debate, especially when faculty in such schools traditionally lack exposure to the hard sciences and technology disciplines.A third concern in the design of technology management curricula raised herein is the notion of avoiding polar extremes in content coverage, which are emphasiz ing theoretically rigorous, but highly abstract research or stressing practical content based on â€Å"war stories† and conventional wisdom. Placing too much emphasis on practical experience may have negative consequences since the mental models that such pedagogies create can quickly become obsolete, particularly in light of the fast evolving technologies the curricula are supposed to address (Locke & Schone, 2004).In ? other words, practice-oriented technology management curricula may inspire students to become more entrepreneurially oriented, but without the concomitant development of critical thinking skills, such as the ability to assess risks and recognize the inevitable downsides of entrepreneurial activity. Technology management curricula that are light on practice, however, can produce students who may find the challenge of boundary spanning, a key skill for successful technology managers, too great to scale.Van Burg, Romme, Gilsing, and Reymenk (2008) have outlined a design science-based model for the development of academic spin-offs that is grounded in both theory and practice. As noted by Barr, Baker, Markham, and Kingon (this issue), new developments in technology management education stress the importance of active involvement (experiential learning) models that are authentic and real. Many technology management curricula mimic those of entrepreneurship, in that they include a ealthy dose of business plan writing, ostensibly as products of courses on commercialization and opportunity search. There is considerable debate over the usefulness of business plans in practice, even though venture capitalists and banks demand them. Indeed, Barr, Baker, Markham, and Kingon (this issue) challenge the effectiveness of teaching the preparation of a business plan. They suggest that it is preferable to deemphasize the writing of a plan because it tends to restrict creativity and the search for more appropriate solutions.Yet, as a pedagogical tool, we t hink that business plans, when used appropriately, can be a useful way to garner a student’s attention on a comprehensive set of issues that should be considered when commercializing an invention. A shift is taking place from traditional technology management curricula toward more entrepreneurially based courses that require interdisciplinary skills. As part of this development, there is a need for interdisciplinary team-learning activities to be a central part of curriculum development in technology management education.Team composition needs to be addressed carefully to enable participants to gain full benefits. Thursby, Thursby, and Fuller (this issue) present an interesting example of teams of law, business, science, and engineering students converging to commercialize innovations developed at Emory University and the Georgia Institute of Technology. Developments in technology management education also pose major faculty recruitment challenges. Many business school facult y members do teaching, research, and service (including consulting) that is focused on large corporations.Traditional business school academics typically lack the appropriate context-specific business creation skills that are increasingly demanded as central to technology management education (Wright, Piva, Mosey, & Lockett, 2008). As noted in Barr, Baker, Markham, and Kingon (this issue), the recruitment of adjunct faculty members should be focused on those who can serve as mentors to students. There is also a need to consider recruitment and training of faculty who can act as boundary spanners.The time-consuming nature of developing interdisciplinary curricula raises a concern about possible conflicts with the promotion-and-tenure process, which also needs to be addressed in recruitment and retention. AGENDY FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ON TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION To build on the findings of this special issue, we identify a number of areas for further research. 2009 Phan, Siegel, and Wright 333 These are summarized in Table 4, where we identify a series of research questions relating to institutional issues, the interaction between education and practice, the advancement of business schools, and evaluation.Universities typically have well-established conventions and practices concerning the management of their activities. The traditional academic culture of the university (the classic â€Å"ivory tower†) embodies a system of values that opposes the commercialization of research through company creation. When university administration is decentralized, with no mechanism for integration, links between business schools and technologyoriented units of universities may be weak or in- formal.This suggests a need for the development and implementation of clear and well-defined strategies, processes, and policies regarding new venture formation and approaches to technology management education that incorporate entrepreneurial activities. Institutional frictions and thei r impact upon intraorganization knowledge transfer are wellknown (Szulanski, 1996). These frictions in the interactions between different elements of the university may frustrate the development of interdisciplinary technology management curricula.Transferring personnel across organizational boundaries has been identified as an important mechanism to effect knowledge transfer (Inkpen & Tsang, TABLE 4 Research Agenda Institutional Issues How do incentive systems for faculty encourage the time-intensive development of effective technology management courses? What institutional challenges constrain the cross-disciplinary development of technology management education? What are resource implications for universities attempting to develop interdisciplinary technology management education?Interaction Between Education and Practice How can technology management education processes be transferred to promote the creation and development of spin-offs? How can universities develop integration processes among technology management education and technology transfer offices, incubators, and science parks? How can business schools enhance (effective) engagement with leading-edge technological entrepreneurs? Advancement of Business Schools How can the necessary specific skills now required for technology management education be developed within business schools?Do business schools have the requisite career structures for faculty involved in technology management education? (e. g. , adjunct, nontenure track faculty). What is the role of business school faculty in contributing to the development of technology management education? Evaluation Issues How effective are different developments in technology management education? Is it possible to have a valid control group in evaluation of technology management education? From a corporate perspective (since many students are sponsored by companies), how effective are technology management programs?What are the most appropriate metho ds for evaluating the effectiveness of technology management education? What decision making processes are most effective in promoting interdisciplinary teaching and research, and integration in technology management education (top-down vs. bottom-up)? Does development of technology management education represent a need to reevaluate the whole position of business schools within universities, or is there a need for ambidexterity? What are the roles of different competitors within the segments of the broad technology management space?What challenges arise in addressing â€Å"language barriers† between business school and technology/ engineering faculty and how can they be overcome? What is the best way to train technology managers who must engage in boundary spanning among industry, the entrepreneurial community, academia, and government? What challenges arise in integrating research with new developments in technology management education? Is it possible to build evaluation i nto the design of technology management education programs, so we can identify â€Å"best practices† and benchmark comparable programs? 34 Academy of Management Learning & Education September 2005). Universities may need to consider the facilitation of exchanges of staff between schools or the development of faculty with boundary-spanning skills. Academics may identify more closely with their discipline than with the business school or university and may seek to marginalize â€Å"tribes† from â€Å"outside disciplines† (Becher & Trowler, 2001). This concern is especially salient if the objective is to integrate research with new developments in technology management education.Differences in language and goals between business schools and science- and technology-based departments exacerbate these problems. Business schools may also lack credibility with conventional, â€Å"pure† scientists, who perceive them as professional schools with little research tra dition. This may be a major issue in universities with strong science departments and weak business schools (Wright et al. , 2008). However, even this effect is likely to vary between disciplines, as some departments, for example, engineering and medicine, may be closer in the sense of being professional schools than the pure science departments.It may also be important to focus on the role of technology managers within the university. Siegel, Waldman, and Link (2003) found that the key impediment to effective university technology transfer tended to be organizational in nature. In a subsequent field study (Siegel, Waldman, Atwater, & Link, 2004), the authors found there are deficiencies in the technology transfer office and other areas of the university involved in technology commercialization with respect to marketing skills and entrepreneurial experience.This finding has been confirmed with more systematic data by Markman, Phan, Balkin, and Gianodis (2004), who explained this res ult by reporting that universities were not actively recruiting individuals with such skills and experience. Instead, representative institutions appear to be focusing on expertise in patent law and licensing or technical expertise. To develop effective curricula, the expertise that business school faculty need to interact with science and technology departments may be discipline specific.Yet the background of business school faculty typically makes it difficult for them to convey sufficiently context-specific material for different groups of technologists. To this end, Siegel and Phan (2005) suggest the creation of formal training programs for university personnel on the issue of technology management. Thursby, Thursby, and Fuller (this issue) report that an integrated graduate program on technological entrepreneurship has a positive impact on student perceptions of the multidisciplinary capabil- ties needed to operate in a technologically oriented business environment. Taking a pa ge from Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham (2007), who drew on the theory of planned behavior to demonstrate that entrepreneurship programs raised risktaking attitudes and inspired entrepreneurial intention among students, we suggest that technology management curricula can similarly inspire students to think creatively about how they can convert science to commercial ventures by immersing them in the experience of technology and opportunity evaluation early on in the program.Authors of evaluation studies need to find ways of incorporating the measurement of postprogram outcomes, such as new venturing and career trajectories, through more longitudinal studies. More specifically, it would be extremely useful to build evaluation into the design of such programs, so that we can identify â€Å"best practices† and benchmark comparable programs as we do for other types of programs. A critical methodological issue in evaluation concerns whether it is possible to have a viable contro l group for such a study. The papers in this special issue represent a number of different institutional contexts worldwide.A final question one can ask, after reading these papers, is whether there are developments that suggest a convergence in program design towards a universal model, or are we likely to experience a wide variation due to adaptations to the local contexts? Locke and Schone (2004) highlight ? important differences in the interaction between business schools and industry in Europe compared to those in the United States. They suggest that the relations between business school faculty and other scientists have traditionally been stronger in the United States than in the United Kingdom and France.Further, subjects taught in business schools in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States tend to be close to praxis, and professors have usually had practical experience. To contrast, in Germany management education has always been strongly oriented toward science, wi th academics having little business experience/ contact with industry; this pattern appears to have persisted despite pressure for convergence to an Anglo-Saxon business school model (Muller-Camen & Salzgeber, 2005).Mustar (this issue) and Verzat, Byrne, and Fayolle (this issue) illustrate the challenges of introducing entrepreneurial elements to the traditional approach to technology and engineering training in France. Hang, Ang, Wong, and Subramanian (this issue) argue that there was a need to design a program to meet the needs of a small newly developed Asian country. In sum, while the elements of technology man- 2009 Phan, Siegel, and Wright 335 agement curricula appear to be very similar, in part driven by the institutional hegemony of U. S. ased models, there is some indication of local adaptation in pedagogy, delivery mechanisms, and sequencing of content, based on government initiatives, types of corporations that employ the local graduates of such programs, and the capabili ties of the universities delivering them. REFERENCES Ambos, T. , Makela, K. , Birkinshaw, J. , & D’Este, P. 2008. When does university research get commercialized? Creating ambidexterity in research institutions. Journal of Management Studies, 45: 1424 –1447. Becher, T. , & Trowler, P. R. 2001. Academic tribes and territories.Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Carlile, R. P. 2002. A pragmatic view of knowledge and boundaries: Boundary objects in new product development. Organization Science, 13: 442– 455. Inkpen, A. , & Tsang, E. 2005. Social capital, networks and knowledge transfer. Academy of Management Review, 30(1): 146 – 165. Koh, W. , & Phan, P. In Press. The National Innovation System in Singapore. In V. K. , Narayanan, & G. O’Connor, (Eds. ), Encyclopedia for Technology, Innovation and Management, Blackwell Press: U. K. Locke, R. , & Schone, K. 2004.The entrepreneurial shift: Ameri? canizat ion in European high-technology management education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Markman, G. , Phan, P. , Balkin, D. , & Gianiodis, P. 2004. Entrepreneurship from the ivory tower: Do incentive systems matter? Journal of Technology Transfer, 29(3– 4): 353–364. Markman, G. , Siegel, D. , & Wright, M. 2008. Research and technology commercialization. Journal of Management Studies, 45: 1401–1423. Meyer, M. 2008. University patenting and IP management approaches in Europe. Brighton: SPRU, University of Sussex. Muller-Camen, M. , & Salzgeber, S. 2005.Changes in academic work and the chair regime: The case of German business administration academics. Organization Studies, 26(2): 271– 290. Mustar, P. , & Wright, M. 2009. Convergence or path dependency in policies to foster the creation of university spin-off firms? A comparison of France and the United Kingdom. Journal of Technology Transfer, forthcoming. Nambisan, S. , & Willemon, D. 2003. A global st udy of graduate management of technology programmes. Technovation, 23: 949 –962. Pfeffer, J. , & Fong, C. T. 2002. The end of business schools? Less success than meets the eye. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1(1): 78 –95.Pfeffer, J. , & Fong, C. T. 2004. The business school â€Å"business†: Some lessons from the U. S. experience. Journal of Management Studies, 41(8): 1501–1520. Phan, P. , Siegel, D. S. , & Wright, M. 2005. Science parks and incubators: Observations, synthesis and future research. Journal of Business Venturing, 20(2): 165–182. Siegel, D. S. , & Phan, P. 2005. Analyzing the effectiveness of university technology transfer: Implications for entrepreneurship education. In G. D. Libecap, (Ed. ), Advances in the study of entrepreneurship, innovation, and economic growth, volume 16: University entrepreneurship and technology transfer: 1–38.JAI Press: Oxford, UK. Siegel, D. S. , Waldman, D. , & Link, A. N. 2003. Assess ing the impact of organizational practices on the productivity of university technology transfer offices: An exploratory study. Research Policy, 32(1): 27– 48. Siegel, D. S. , Waldman, D. , Atwater, L. , & Link, A. N. 2004. Toward a model of the effective transfer of scientific knowledge from academicians to practitioners: Qualitative evidence from the commercialization of university technologies. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 21(1–2): 115–142. Siegel, D. S. , & Wright M. 2007. Intellectual property: The assessment.Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 23(4): 529 –540. Souitaris V. , Zerbinati, S. , & Al-Laham, A. 2007. Do entrepreneurship programmes raise entrepreneurial intentions of science and engineering students? The effects of learning, inspiration and resources. Journal of Business Venturing, 22(4): 566 –591. Starkey, K. , Hatchuel, A. , & Tempest, S. 2004. Rethinking the business school. Journal of Management Studies, 41(8) : 1521–1532. Suddaby, R. , & Greenwood, R. 2001. Colonizing knowledge: Commodification as a dynamic of jurisdictional expansion in professional service firms. Human Relations, 54: 933–953.Szulanski, G. 1996. Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17: 27– 43. Van Burg, E. , Romme, G. L. , Gilsing, V. A, & Reymenk, I. M. M. J. 2008. Creating university spin-offs: A science-based design perspective. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 25: 114 –128. Wright, M. , Piva, E. , Mosey, S. , & Lockett, A. 2009. Academic entrepreneurship and the role of business schools. Journal of Technology Transfer. Phillip Phan is professor and vice dean for Faculty and Research at The Johns Hopkins University Carey Business School.Between 2000 and 2007, he was the Warren H. Bruggeman ’46 and Pauline Urban Bruggeman Distinguished Professor of Management at Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti tute. Phil is associate editor for the Journal of Business Venturing, the Journal of Financial Stability, and the Journal of Technology Transfer. His most recent books are Theoretical Advances in Family Enterprise Research (InfoAge Press); Entrepreneurship and Economic Development in Emerging Regions (Edward Elgar); and Taking Back the Boardroom: Thriving as a Director in the 21st Century (Imperial College Press).Donald Siegel is dean of the School of Business and professor of management at the University at Albany, SUNY. Don is editor of the Journal of Technology Transfer, associate editor of 336 Academy of Management Learning & Education Journal of Business Venturing, Journal of Productivity Analysis, and Academy of Management Learning & Education. His most recent books are Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and Technological Change (Oxford University Press); and the Handbook of Corporate Social Responsibility (Oxford University Press).He has received grants or fellowships from the Slo an Foundation, National Science Foundation, NBER, American Statistical Association, W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, and the U. S. Department of Labor. Professor Siegel is a member of the Advisory Committee to the Secretary of Commerce on â€Å"Measuring Innovation in the 21st Century Economy. † Mike Wright has been professor of financial studies at Nottingham University Business School since 1989 and director of the Centre for Management Buy-out Research since 1986.He has written over 25 books and more than 250 papers in academic and professional journals on management buy-outs, venture capital, habitual entrepreneurs, corporate governance, and related topics. He served two terms as an editor of Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (1994 –1999) and is currently a consulting editor of Journal of Management Studies and an associate editor of Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal. Mike is also program chair of the Academy of Management Entrepreneurship Divisi on. His latest books include Academic Entrepreneurship in Europe and Private Equity and Management Buyouts. September

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The Possible Benefit from Tobacco - Term Paper Example In order to have a clear understanding of the importance of cigarette taxes, it is appropriate to give a historical background of the object- cigarettes. Historically, tobacco became popular in the United States in 17th century which was often associated with slavery since tobacco plantations required massive manpower. However, when America started trading with other colonies after the American Revolution, tobacco in the form of cigarettes became popular. The origin of cigarette smoking can be traced to Western Europe. The cigarette was actually smoked by members of the lower class population in Andalusia which was adapted by the French during their conquests there. Later during the Victorian period, the British adopted tobacco to suit their taste and style but in the form of â€Å"dainty looking cigarette† which can used by the ladies (Burns 132 ). In the United States, Maryland and Virginia competed heavily in tobacco farming resulting to the establishment of two different types of auction system for loose-leaf. This caused tremendous pressure to the government leading to the enactment of the Tobacco Inspection Act that directs the Secretary of Agriculture to impose controls on the tobacco Industry ( McGrew ). In addition to this, McGrew asserts that the government imposed regulation since â€Å"the tobacco industry provided more than $4.8 billion in taxes in 1971† (USDA, Tobacco Situation, 1971b: 44). Strictly speaking, the first federal excise tax on tobacco was included in the Alexander Hamilton’s tax.

Argument analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Argument analysis - Essay Example Throughout the book Lewis uses very persuasive and precise arguments to make his case. At the beginning of Chapter Two, Lewis examines the problem of pain. The argument is based on some contradictory premises: 1. Because God is good and all powerful, he would want to create a good world 2. The world is not good 3. God is therefore either not good or not all powerful Lewis examines these premises throughout Chapter two and decides the issue is more nuanced. Words like â€Å"omnipotence† are problematic, as is the word â€Å"goodness.† Our words and terms do not really fit God, in all his glory. We cannot be expected to understand the mysterious ways of the universe, Lewis argues. Essentially this is an argument about faith. Lewis seems to be saying: If you don't really understand things, just trust the priests to understand it for you. These premises rely on a number of logical leaps that Lewis uses throughout his argument. For example, he looks back over history and con cludes that religious feeling has always been with us. From the dawn of humanity people have believed in something larger than themselves. At first their knowledge of these phenomena was far from perfect and they mistook all sort of occurrences as signs of divine power. Now nothing is more certain than that man, from a very early period, began to believe that the universe was haunted by spirits . . . It is therefore theoretically possible that there was a time when men regarded these spirits simply as dangerous and felt towards them just as they felt towards tigers. What is certain is that now, at any rate, the numinous experience exists and that if we start from ourselves we can trace it a long way back (15). This is an interesting observation, but it would have been best to explore what a numinous experience really is. Is it an actually transaction with the supernatural? Or is it something physiological? Without an understanding about the reality of mystical experiences it is hard to go much further with this. There are for example, studies which suggest the commonly observed phenomenon in near-death experiences—a white light at a tunnel—is a physiological reaction that can be replicated by cutting off oxygen to the brain. Is this too a numinous experience? He asks us to expand on our definitions of goodness and omnipotence while narrowing the possible explanations for phenomena in the world. Indeed, as Lewis explains: The problem of pain is a problem about the order of the universe. As Lewis puts it, Christianity is not a solution to the problem, but in fact brings the problem into question as it promises something better than pain: â€Å"for pain would be no problem unless, side by side with our daily experience of this painful world, we had received what we think a good assurance that ultimate reality is righteous and loving† (21). So how has Christianity promised any of this? Those who believe pain dominates all, argue that it cannot and that it is a sham. But Lewis does not believe this. The argument Lewis makes can be generalized by saying that humans do have a power over their lives and are not part of a clockwork universe. They choose how to live and who to obey. If they wish to turn their backs on God and ignore him they are entirely capable of doing so. If they wish to behave in a bad manner and injure their fellows and disrespect authority, again they can do so. But this will not make them happy or fulfil them in any way. They have

Charting a New Course for Schools Essay Example for Free

Charting a New Course for Schools Essay Marc Tucker’s article, â€Å"Charting a New Course for Schools,† highlights the most urgent problems that the American education system currently faces. He mentions the need to reform the education system in order to compete in today’s global economy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tucker pointed out the deficiencies of the educational system in the country today. Furthermore, he stressed on the need to implement changes to the system. The author focused on information that evidently shows why there is an urgent need to overhaul the educational system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Tucker, the report of New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, â€Å"Tough Choices or Tough Times, provides an overview of the current status of the American labor force. It shows how the American workers are lagging behind workers from developing countries in terms of skills and abilities. Also, Tucker points out that workers from developing countries possess the same skills and knowledge as American workers and yet are paid lower wages. This poses a problem for American workers since it is a given that any business man would choose to lower costs for the same quality. American workers are losing their edge in the labor market due to the antiquated education system of the country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The dilemma for American workers is this, they must either give up their current standard of living or they must improve themselves in terms of skills, talents, and abilities. The latter, according to Tucker, is the reason why a revamp of the country’s education system has become a necessity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tucker points out two criteria that the United States must meet in order for its workers to continue commanding their high wages and maintain their standard of living. The author says that first, American workers must match the best academic performance in the world. At the same time, Tucker said, the country must offer workers that are the most creative and innovative.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The article also highlighted the characteristics of a premium worker or the worker that deserves to be paid premium wages. According to the author American workers should become premium workers in order to receive the current wages that they are receiving. He described a premium worker as someone who has a high level of preparation in the general areas of reading, speaking, mathematics, history, literature, fine arts, and science. Furthermore, a premium worker should be comfortable with new ideas and abstractions. He must also be creative and possess the imagination to come up with meaningful and useful products for the company. Premium workers must also possess the ability to solve problems by using their knowledge from various fields. Lastly, Tucker described a premium worker as someone who is a team player and can easily adapt to the various changes around him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Premium workers are products of a good and up-to-date educational system. This is the current problem of the education in the country as the current system is no longer adept with the conditions of today. To tackle this problem, Tucker suggested seven steps that can be taken to reform the American educational system. First, Tucker suggested charting a new course for student progression through the system. This requires a total reorganization of the system and opening of new educational opportunities as the students progress. Secondly, the author pointed out the need to reinvest resources where they are most needed and where they will be most efficiently used. This means that available resources should be allocated to areas of the system which can produce the greatest amount of rewards for the students. Another step is to initiate a universal preschool educational system. Tucker viewed preschool education as the foundation of school-based learning. If students are to become highly-skilled workers, they must have a good education foundation and preschool education is the integral aspect of such foundation. For teacher recruitment, Tucker suggested that schools recruit those coming from the top third of the college class. This will ensure highly-educated and competent teachers. Moreover, Tucker suggested the adoption of high-performance management modes to improve schools and districts. Also, he pointed out the need to provide strong support to disadvantaged students. Finally, he proposed the rebuilding of standards, assessment, and curriculum to reflect today’s needs and tomorrow’s requirements. In general, Marc Tucker’s article discusses the problems of the antiquated American educational system and its severe effects on the country’s labor force. I believe that there is indeed a pressing need to revamp the current educational system. Education in the country today no longer meets the needs of the economy. The labor force that the educational system produces is insufficient in terms of skills and abilities. The workers lack the necessary skills that warrant the wages they get. It is for this reason that American and international firms seem to turn to developing countries for their labor needs. If American workers are to remain deserving of the wages they receive, they must become more competent and highly-skilled. It is my opinion that the only way that the country will produce highly-skilled, creative, and innovative workers is to change the educational system. The system should focus more on the development of skills necessary for the various employment needs today. It is the right of every citizen to be properly and adequately educated in order to survive. The current system can no longer provide the educational needs of the people. The primary reason why people go to school is to prepare them for work. Since workers currently receive sub-standard education, they lack the skills and abilities that the labor market needs. Evidently, the only solution to this dilemma is, I believe, to revamp the educational system.

Role of the Political Parties and the Military in China

Role of the Political Parties and the Military in China Sun Yat-sens views On The Role Of The Political Parties And The Military In China To what extent were Sun Yat-sens views on the role of the political parties and the military in China simply copied from the Soviet Union? The ideas of Sun Yat-sen have been crucial to the development of China in the twentieth century. Often referred to as the father of the nation (Mackerras 1998, p23), Sun Yat-sen was the instigator of the revolution that overthrew the monarchy in China and later formed the basis of the ideology within the Nationalist Party. Certainly following the 1911 revolution Sun Yat-sen developed links with the Communist Party in Russia and continued to forge close links with Russia for more than a decade, yet much of this was in a pragmatic attempt to gain aid and support from the Soviet government, rather than inspired by the policies of the Soviet state. Some of his views were influenced by the Soviet Union, yet to states that his ideas were simply copied from the Soviet Union would be an exaggeration. Sun Yat-sen was widely travelled and educated his ideas came from a variety of sources and his aims were to develop principles specific to China rather than to attempt to implement a political system from another nation and another culture. In his later years, Soviet advisers did gain a greater influence over SunYat-sen but it would be fairer to say that he took on board ideas that he felt suited his cause, rather than simply copied them. Born to a poor family near Canton, Sun Yat-sen was largely educated in Hawaii. As a young man he was certainly at home as much abroad as in China and was comfortable conversing in English (Fitzgerald 1971, p24). Having learnt of the power and development of the West, he quickly became convinced of the corruption of the Manchu dynasty and made up his mind that only revolutionary change could save China. He was willing to engage radical ideas that had been impressed upon him by Western democracies. He saw a republic as favourable as monarchies had gone out of fashion in Europe and was impressed by the relative success of democracy in the more advanced Western nations. Su Yat-sens earliest revolutionary ideas preceded the Soviet Union, and his much of his early thinking was done abroad. He spent time in Britain, collating ideas in the reading room of the British library and seeking out a variety of sources. Schiffrin reports that: Sun wasted no moments in gaieties; he was forever at work, reading books on all subjects which appertained to political, diplomatic, legal, military and naval matters; mines and mining, agriculture, cattle rearing, engineering, political economy etc; occupied his attention and were studied closely and persistently. The range of his opportunities for acquiring knowledge has been such as few men have ever had (Schiffrin 1968, p134). As early as 1897, Sun Yat-sen came into contact with Russian revolutionaries, meeting on several occasions in London with Felix Volhovsky, the editor of the English Society of Friends of Russian Freedom. The basis of Sun Yat-sens political philosophy is his Three Peoples Principles which detailed his ideal of a government that would serve the people of China. The principles were named nationalism, democracy and the peoples livelihood and were devised by SunYat-sen with the aim of restoring the nation as a powerful and successful democracy. Throughout his political life he came into contact with Russian revolutionaries and certainly at different stages they have contributed to his basic principles. Russian influence was notable not only to SunYat-sen but to many education Chinese, particularly in the period following the 4th May uprising in 1919. This period saw the beginnings of nationalism in China, with many in the country becoming increasingly angered at the corrupt minister that they saw as having sold the country to Japan (Fitzgerald 1971, p24). The educated class in China gradually came to realise the state of the nation both internally and on the international stage and thus look abroad for ideas on how to make the nation strong again. Fitzgerald writes of this period Nationalism as opposed to Republican idealism, was born. he new enthusiasts did not much care what form it took as long as it did something to restore China (Fitzgerald 1971, p41). The Russian Revolution was an appealing alternative to young Chinese. Many were nationalists, and if some were lacking in understanding of communism, many others were attracted intellectually to the doctrines of Marx and Lenin. Above all else, many, and this undoubtedly includes Sun Yat-sen, were highly impressed by the transformation of Russia from a decaying monarchy to a socialist republic. It was apparent that other foreign powers were unable to stop the Russian revolution and feared the new Soviet state this strength on the world stage was also appealing to Chinese nationalists. Sun Yat-sen who had been living in Shanghai at the time was one of many Chinese who admired the Revolution and had few qualms about the violent means to carry it out; in China the idea of woe to the conquered was a fact of political life (Fitzgerald 1971, p46). In examining the influence of the Soviet Union over Sun Yat-sens thinking, one has to appreciate that as a revolutionary and a socialist, it is only natural that he would have an interest in Soviet Russia. The Russian Revolution was one of the major political developments of his age and Soviet policies on political parties and the military would have been of interest to any revolutionary thinker at the time. Between 1920 and 1922 he was actively courted by emissaries from Russia and representatives from Comintern. Wilbur writes that Sun Yat-sen remained keen to be kept informed of developments in the Soviet Union and suggests that he showed much sympathy for the Russian Revolution, and his words suggest that he made a psychological identification between the Russian Revolution and his own efforts, and between himself and Lenin (Wilbur 1976, p112). As early as 1918, Sun Yat-sen had telegraphed Lenin on behalf of the South China Parliament and the Chinese Revolutionary Party, congratulating him on the ongoing struggle in Russia and expressing the hope that the Soviet and Chinese parties might one day join forces in a common struggle. At this stage, his words have to be seen as a gesture of comradeship rather than an expression of any serious intent the chaotic state of Russia at the time would have given Sun little basis for ideas on political and military organisation. An American journalist, George Sokolsky, became a part of Sun Yat-sens entourage in Shanghai in early 1919 and facilitated discussion around possible military cooperation. However, Suns position in terms of the military differed at the tame from that of the Soviets the Russian wanted an end to seemingly endless fighting whilst SunYat-sen remained, in the words of a Russian colonel an old-fashioned militarist who saw no way of saving his country except through arms (Wilbur 1976, p116). In years to come, the Soviets would consistently attempt to covert Sun Yat-sen from his reliance on military force to achieve political goals. The period 1920-22 saw Sun Yat-sen eager to win financial aid from other nations. As a result he made some form of contact with practically all of the major power the USA, Great Britain, France, Japan and Germany. As much as there was a warm relationship with Russia, it is likely that SunYat-sen would have happily taken aid from other powers had it been available. His correspondence and talks with Soviet envoy Adolf Joffe give some idea as to the somewhat confused nature of Suns relationship with the Soviets. Whilst stating to Joffe that the Soviet system was not suitable for China, Sun Yat-sen allowed Joffes influence to help regulate the roles of the Communist and Nationalist parties in preparation for the coming revolution. In 1923, he agreed to communists joining the Nationalist Party as individuals and it was advisors such as Joffe who helped Sun Yat-sen to organise his armies and free himself from the dominance of Chinese warlords (Fitzgerald 1971, p47). A joint statement issu ed with Joffe had been unequivocal on the issue of the political system that SunYat-sen was aiming for and summarises accurately his ideas about any future relationship that China would have with the Soviets.. It stated: Dr SunYat-sen holds that the Communistic order or even the Soviet system cannot actually be introduced into China, because there do not exist here the conditions for the successful establishment of either communism of Sovietism. This view is shared entirely by Dr Joffe, who is further of the opinion that Chinas paramount and most pressing problem is to achieve national unification and attain full national independence, and regarding this task, he has assured Dr SunYat-sen that China has the warmest sympathy of the Russian people and can count ton the support of Russia (Wilbur 1976, p137). SunYat-sens priorities at the beginning of the 1920s were simply to build a peaceful, united China operating within some form of constitutional order. He believed that foreign aid was vital for him to do this and utilise a number of tactics to do this. He wrote to foreign heads of state, had allies abroad campaign on his behalf and used military, economic and diplomatic strategies to try and achieve his goals. In terms of military aid and advice, he attempted to arrange for military advisers from Russia, amongst other nations. His correspondence with Joffe led to a reorganisation of Suns Kuomintang Party. Whilst the Communist Party had advocated a revolutionary alliance with the Kuomintang, Sun rejected this idea, insisting instead that all Chinese revolutionaries join his organisation. By October 1922,Sun had inducted some Communist Party leaders into his party, and appointed their lead, Chen Tu-hsiu as a member of a nine man committee to plan for the reorganisation of the party (Wilbur 1976, p131). 1923 saw Sun Yat-sen established in Canton, attempting to build up his power base. It was the arrival of Michael Borodin in this period that began the most concerted period of Soviet influence of Sun Yat-sens ideas. Borodins role was to act as Soviet Russias instrument through which aid and guidance should be given to the revolutionary movement and it was he who instigated the reorganisation of the Kuomintang along Bolshevist lines. Borodin took little time in outlining his plans for a reorganisation of the Kuomintang, based around creating a provisional national committee of twenty-one under the chairmanship of SunYat-sen and consisting of the most prominent members of the Kuomintang, the Communist Party, the Socialist Youth Corps and workers unions. Sun Yat-sen took some of Borodins ideas on board and he began to plan a reorganisation of the Kuomintang. He appointed a nine-man Provisional Central Executive Committee to draft a new party platform and constitution and to prepare for the partys first national congress, appointing Borodin as an adviser to the committee. Sun Yat-sen made it clear to his own followers, that whilst following some of the advice from the Soviets over party organisation, he would not blindly follow them. He stated, The present reorganisation should preserve our partys original à ©lan but adopt the Soviet Russian organisation, thus acquiring its benefits while rejecting its evils. We may merely yoke up Soviet Russia and mount it (Wilbur 1976, p175). A military crisis shortly after Borodins arrival in Canton gave the Russian adviser an opportunity to have some influence over SunYat-sens military policies. His forces in the city were very much on the back foot against LinHus forces, with both army and navy troops deserting. Borodins plan was to play on the nationalism and economic aspirations of the Canton population. He issued decrees promising land to the peasants through the confiscation and distribution of landlord holdings, along with encouraging an eight-hour day and a minimum wage for workers. The plan worked to inspire a greater military effort at the front and the crisis was averted. Shortly afterward, Sun made a speech discussing past party failures and explaining that the ongoing reorganisation was intended to spread the parts influence across all of China and release it from an exclusive dependence on military force this had been very much a soviet idea. Sun Yat-sen, at this particular time, was keen to base his Three Principles of the People on a Soviet model. He stated: Now a good friend, Mr Borodin, has come from Russia.If we hope for victory in revolution, we should study the Russian methods of organisation and training (Wilbur 1976, p179). Sun argued the Soviet position that Communism had been chosen by the Russian people and that nationalism and popular support had enable it to defeat both internal enemies and external powers. His view was that that the Russian people were no longer the salves of foreign powers and that Chinas revolution had failed to succeeded to date as it had not fully embraced nationalism in either its party organisation or within the military. There was some opposition to what was seen by some as too much dependence on Soviet ideas on party organisation by Sun Yat-sen, yet1923 was the year when Soviet ideas held the most influence over Sun. In speeches he praised the discipline of Soviet party organisation and spoke positively on how a united party could take the movement away from such a dependence on armed force. Nonetheless, leaders with the Kuomintang remained concerned at the influence of the Communist International and the policies of admitting communists and allying with Soviet Russia. Petitions to SunYat-sen however met simply with denial of allegations and assurances about the Soviets. Sun increasingly had begun to argue the point that there was little difference between his Principles of Peoples Livelihood and Communism. The first National Congress of the Kuomintang met in Canton in January 1924 and confirmed a plan of party reorganisation based largely along the lines of Borodins advice. A new leadership was established to create a mass party with a wider influence across China. Sun Yat-sen saw his name written into the constitution as leader, with power of veto. Sun again spoke glowingly of the Soviet system, stating that its system of placing party above government was the most modern in the world (Wilbur 1976,p191). Speeches given by SunYat-sen in 1924 formed the basis for what is understood as his basic philosophy, contained in his Three Principles. The lectures were largely based around his ideas on nationalism and give the clearest indication as to the effect that Soviet ideas had on his thinking in the latter years of his life. He saw the military future as one not of wars between races but between social classes or of oppressed against oppressor. He also talked more openly of empire and of recovering some of Chinas territorial losses to other colonial powers. He spoke of the military dangers caused by Chinas small military capability. He argued that Japan would be able to conquer China within two weeks, the United States within a month. Sun also move away from his earlier democratic tendencies in his later speeches, suggested that the Soviet style dictatorship of the people was the most effective form of government. Borodins influence on SunYat-sens lectures was clear, as was some of the ideas in terms of the military taken on board by Sun whilst Borodin was based in Canton. One of the roles of Borodins team was to establish a Kuomintang military academy, to be assisted with Russian advice and funds. The idea behind the Whampoa Military Academy was to produce, Soviet style, a politically indoctrinated and reliable corps of junior officers to form the basis for an army first and foremost loyal to the party. Russian officers instructed at the academy and Suns military capability was further enhanced in October 1924 by the arrival of a shipment of Russian arms, including several thousand rifles and ammunition, accompanied by a further nine Russian officers to continue training at the military academy. Sun Yat-sen was not a confirmed Marxist and differed from the Soviet Union in this respect. He was never of the belief that Marxism could genuinely work in China. In other areas however, in particular party organisation, he was undoubtedly attracted to Soviet ideas Above all else Sun was a patriot who most of all wanted to make his nation great again. He saw the Soviet as a good example for China to follow through revolution and the embracing of nationalism, a nation that had suffered under corrupt rule and at the hands of established colonial powers could once again reassert itself. The Soviet Union was also an ally. Whilst Sun Yat-sen may well have allied closer to other nations who offered help, the fact is that it was the Soviet Union that offered help to him and his movement. Sun Yat-sen was educated enough to form his own opinions about the best methods of party and military organisation. He may have come under some pressure from the likes of Joffe and Borodin to adopt Soviet methods but the Soviet ideas that he use were ones that he genuinely believed would best help his cause. In many ways, SunYat-sen was a pragmatist he used the Soviet Union for his own benefit and would have acted similarly with other allies. Others within his party had concerns about the way he was influenced by Soviet ideas, but Sun was making a active choice to take on board these ideas he was not simply copying them Bibliography Esterer Arnulf Esterer Louise, Sun Yat-sen Chinas Great Champion, Julian Messner, New York 1970 Fitzgerald CP, Communism Takes China How the Revolution went Red, American Heritage Press, New York 1971 Gray Jack, Rebellions and Revolutions, China from the 1800s to 2000, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002 Mackerras Colin, China in Transformation 1900-1949, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd, Harlow 1998 Wilbur Martin, Sun Yat-sen Frustrated Patriot, Columbia University Press, New York 1976 Schiffrin Harold, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolution, University of California Press, California 1968